{"id":322,"date":"2018-08-06T12:22:57","date_gmt":"2018-08-06T06:52:57","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.techandtrain.com\/blog\/?p=322"},"modified":"2025-10-22T14:55:34","modified_gmt":"2025-10-22T09:25:34","slug":"mystery-of-perfect-numbers-resolved-perfect-number-is-always-even-and-predictable","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.techandtrain.com\/blog\/2018\/08\/mystery-of-perfect-numbers-resolved-perfect-number-is-always-even-and-predictable\/","title":{"rendered":"Mystery of \u2018Perfect Numbers\u2019 Resolved \u2013 Perfect Number is Always Even and Predictable"},"content":{"rendered":"<p><strong>Mystery of \u2018Perfect Numbers\u2019 Resolved \u2013 Perfect Number is Always Even and Predictable<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><strong>Vrajlal Sapovadia (Ph.D.)<br \/>\n<\/strong><strong>Sweta Patel (Ph.D.)<\/strong><strong><br \/>\n<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><strong>Introduction<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>In number theory, a perfect number is a positive integer that is equal to the sum of its proper positive divisors, excluding the number itself. In other words, a perfect number is a number that is half the sum of all of its positive divisors (including itself) i.e. \u03c31(n) = 2n. To explain in practical terms, we elaborate first few Perfect Numbers. It may be noted that \u2018Perfect Numbers\u2019 are sparse are thinly dispersed. Starting from 3<sup>rd<\/sup> Century BC, mathematicians are working on Perfect Numbers. Till April 2018, i.e. during last 2300 years active research, researchers could recognize only 50 perfect numbers. There are 2 perfect numbers in first 100 and 4 in first million. Absolute distance between two perfect numbers increase exponentially as you go higher to the next perfect number<a href=\"#_ftn1\" name=\"_ftnref1\">[1]<\/a>. One can find at least one perfect number till 4 digit numbers, and then it becomes a real rarity. Subsequent perfect numbers appears at 8, 10, 12 and 19 digits. 15<sup>th<\/sup> perfect number has 770 digits while 16<sup>th<\/sup> have 1327 digits. 25<sup>th<\/sup> perfect number has 13066 digits. 50<sup>th<\/sup> perfect number has 46,498,850 digits.<\/p>\n<p>The current literature is still debating on two issues:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Can perfect number is predictable?<\/li>\n<li>Can perfect number be odd?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>We argue that perfect number is predictable and we have developed a formula which answers both lead questions as follow:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Perfect number is predictable<\/li>\n<li>Perfect number is always even<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><strong>Predictability<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Euclid proved that 2p\u22121(2p \u2212 1) is an even perfect number whenever 2p \u2212 1 is prime (Euclid, Prop. IX.36). the first four perfect numbers are generated by the formula 2p\u22121(2p \u2212 1), with p a prime number, as follows:<\/p>\n<p>for p = 2:\u00a0\u00a0 21(22 \u2212 1) = 6<\/p>\n<p>for p = 3:\u00a0\u00a0 22(23 \u2212 1) = 28<\/p>\n<p>for p = 5:\u00a0\u00a0 24(25 \u2212 1) = 496<\/p>\n<p>for p = 7:\u00a0\u00a0 26(27 \u2212 1) = 8128.<\/p>\n<p>Prime numbers of the form 2p \u2212 1 are known as Mersenne primes, after the seventeenth-century monk Marin Mersenne, who studied number theory and perfect numbers. For 2p \u2212 1 to be prime, it is necessary that p itself be prime. However, not all numbers of the form 2p \u2212 1 with a prime p are prime; for example, 211 \u2212 1 = 2047 = 23 \u00d7 89 is not a prime number.[11] In fact, Mersenne primes are very rare\u2014of the 2,270,720 prime numbers p up to 37,156,667,[12] 2p \u2212 1 is prime for only 45 of them.<\/p>\n<p>Nicomachus (60\u2013120 AD) conjectured that every perfect number is of the form 2p\u22121(2p \u2212 1) where 2p \u2212 1 is prime.[13] Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) circa 1000 AD conjectured that every even perfect number is of that form.[14] It was not until the 18th century that Leonhard Euler proved that the formula 2p\u22121(2p \u2212 1) will yield all the even perfect numbers. Thus, there is a one-to-one correspondence between even perfect numbers and Mersenne primes; each Mersenne prime generates one even perfect number, and vice versa. This result is often referred to as the Euclid\u2013Euler theorem. As of January 2018, 50 Mersenne primes are known,[15] and therefore 50 even perfect numbers (the largest of which is 277232916 \u00d7 (277232917 \u2212 1) with 46,498,850 digits).<\/p>\n<p>Owing to their form, 2p\u22121(2p \u2212 1), every even perfect number is represented in binary as p ones followed by p \u2212 1\u00a0 zeros. Interestingly, when a perfect number is converted into binary, it is not only a pernicious number, but binary sequence is spectacular having all 1 on the left side followed by all 0. Interestingly count of 1 is a prime number (p) and 0 is p-1.<\/p>\n<p>6<sub>10<\/sub> = 110<sub>2<\/sub><\/p>\n<p>1 (p = 2) and 0 (1)<\/p>\n<p>28<sub>10<\/sub> = 11100<sub>2<\/sub><\/p>\n<p>1 (p = 3) 0 (2)<\/p>\n<p>496<sub>10<\/sub> = 111110000<sub>2<\/sub><\/p>\n<p>1 (p = 5) 0 (4)<\/p>\n<p>8128<sub>10<\/sub> = 1111111000000<sub>2<\/sub><\/p>\n<p>1 (p = 7) 0 (6)<\/p>\n<p>33550336<sub>10<\/sub> = 1111111111111000000000000<sub>2<\/sub><\/p>\n<p>1 (p = 13) 0 (12)<\/p>\n<p>8589869056<sub>10<\/sub> = 111111111111111110000000000000000<sub>2<\/sub><\/p>\n<p>1 (p = 17) 0 (16)<\/p>\n<p>137438691328<sub>10<\/sub> = 1111111111111111111000000000000000000<sub>2<\/sub><\/p>\n<p>1 (p = 19) 0 (18)<\/p>\n<p>2305843008139952128<sub>10<\/sub> = 1111111111111111111111111111111000000000000000000000000000000<sub>2<\/sub><\/p>\n<p>1 (p = 31) 0 (30)<\/p>\n<p>Thus every even perfect number is a pernicious number. Note that every even perfect number is also a practical number. Therefore a formula to find a perfect number can be developed as 1\u2026.(p) 0\u2026(p-1), where 1 (p) and 0 (p-1) are binary symbol. Thus, a binary number so written equal to a PRIME (p) \u20181\u2019 followed by p-1 \u20180\u2019 could be a perfect number. It may be noted that all prime count does not result into perfect number. Therefore, it is pertinent to test each prime number with formula<a href=\"#_ftn2\" name=\"_ftnref2\">[2]<\/a> will establish whether resultant number is perfect number or not. But in any case, this will reduce substantially the experiment time to find next perfect number or this formula provides a lead to find perfect number with less experiment time.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Odd vs. Even<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>It is unknown whether there is any odd perfect number, though various results have been obtained. In 1496, Jacques Lef\u00e8vre stated that Euclid&#8217;s rule gives all perfect numbers, thus implying that no odd perfect number exists. More recently, Carl Pomerance has presented a heuristic argument suggesting that indeed no odd perfect number should exist. All perfect numbers are also Ore&#8217;s harmonic numbers, and it has been conjectured as well that there are no odd Ore&#8217;s harmonic numbers other than 1. An exhaustive search by the GIMPS<a href=\"#_ftn3\" name=\"_ftnref3\">[3]<\/a> distributed computing project has shown that the first 46 are all even numbers represented by 2p\u22121(2p \u2212 1).<\/p>\n<p>First 50 perfect numbers listed<a href=\"#_ftn4\" name=\"_ftnref4\">[4]<\/a> are all even and their last one or two digits are always 6 or 28. In support of arguments made by various researchers, we found that a perfect number can be presented as binary with formula 1\u2026.(p) 0\u2026(p-1). Any binary pattern as 1 (n) 0 (n-1) will always result into even number. Therefore any perfect number is always a even number.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftn1\">[1]<\/a> 6 (1), 28 (2), 496 (3), 8128 (4), 33550336 (8), 8589869056 (10), 137438691328 (12), 2305843008139952128 (19)<br \/>\n<a href=\"#_ftnref2\" name=\"_ftn2\">[2]<\/a> Binary numbers 1\u2026.(p) 0\u2026(p-1)<br \/>\n<a href=\"#_ftnref3\" name=\"_ftn3\">[3]<\/a> The Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search (GIMPS) is a collaborative project of volunteers who use freely available software to search for Mersenne prime numbers.<br \/>\n<a href=\"#_ftnref4\" name=\"_ftn4\">[4]<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_perfect_numbers\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_perfect_numbers<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Mystery of \u2018Perfect Numbers\u2019 Resolved \u2013 Perfect Number is Always Even and Predictable Vrajlal Sapovadia (Ph.D.) Sweta Patel (Ph.D.) Introduction [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4,"featured_media":324,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"nf_dc_page":"","site-sidebar-layout":"default","site-content-layout":"","ast-site-content-layout":"default","site-content-style":"default","site-sidebar-style":"default","ast-global-header-display":"","ast-banner-title-visibility":"","ast-main-header-display":"","ast-hfb-above-header-display":"","ast-hfb-below-header-display":"","ast-hfb-mobile-header-display":"","site-post-title":"","ast-breadcrumbs-content":"","ast-featured-img":"","footer-sml-layout":"","ast-disable-related-posts":"","theme-transparent-header-meta":"","adv-header-id-meta":"","stick-header-meta":"","header-above-stick-meta":"","header-main-stick-meta":"","header-below-stick-meta":"","astra-migrate-meta-layouts":"default","ast-page-background-enabled":"default","ast-page-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"ast-content-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-4)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-4)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-4)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_access":"","_jetpack_dont_email_post_to_subs":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_tier_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paywalled_content":false,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[70],"tags":[71],"class_list":["post-322","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-mathematics","tag-perfect-numbers"],"jetpack_featured_media_url":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.techandtrain.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Numbers.jpg?fit=1920%2C1264&ssl=1","jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_shortlink":"https:\/\/wp.me\/p7do02-5c","jetpack-related-posts":[{"id":73,"url":"https:\/\/www.techandtrain.com\/blog\/2016\/01\/balanced-software-architecture\/","url_meta":{"origin":322,"position":0},"title":"Balanced software architecture","author":"Neil Harwani","date":"January 27, 2016","format":false,"excerpt":"Humanity is facing unprecedented challenges of climate change, violence, wars, diseases, etc. One of the reasons is development not in unison with universal rules and facts. 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